Indian Holocaust My Father`s Life and Time- Three Hundred Eighty Eight
Palash Biswas
http://indianholocaustmyfatherslifeandtime.blogspot.com/
Another they I did write that we Inherit Dante`s INFERNO as Hell Always Loosing for us! Bhopal Gas Tragedy exposed the Judiciary,Rule of Law and Central Agencies Manipulated to subject us to be Killed for Foreign Capital Inflow to sustain the Ruling affluent Market Dominating Zionist Brahaminical Classes and we happen to be Predestined to perish as the Bhopal Nagasaki, Hiroshima, Chernobyl People have been.
Yes, we also inherit the Concentration Camps, Gas Chambers, Colonies, Strategic Hamlets like SALWA Judum Camps on the line of Vietnam War against the People there.
We inherit the Greek Tragedy.
I belong to a Resettled Bengali Non Recognised SC Refugee family who went to study in DSB College, Nainital, a complete Caste Hindu Zone without any Educational background at all.
My Father was Literate so my uncles, mother and aunts.
We had no faculty in our school nor we could afford any Coaching or Tuition at any level.
Dr. Manas Mukul Das of Allahabad University, the former Editor of Northern India Patrika, an Expert in Modern Poetry said that My Literature was Better than average but the language was not good.
I had not the Background . But I could understand Shakespeare as well as Sophocles very well.
I was not a direct victim of Partition by birth and time, neither I am stranded in Aboriginal Landscape seized by Indian Security Forces under the Corporate War, nor I spent any time as Resident in Refugee Colony or Camp in Bengal, but, nevertheless, I inherit the underlying Tragedy and the Holocaust.
It is the GENOME Legacy we Black Untouchables bear worldwide and proved Scientifically even after the Achievements of Marx, Mao, Martin Luther King and Dr Ambedkar and Nelson Mandela.
The Global Phenomenon is deep rooted in the Saga of Gladiators and the Revolt of Spartacus which NEVER to be stopped even in Post Colonial stage of Capitalism and Post Modern Zionist Manusmriti Order.
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For Example, Indian Communist Movement was resurrected in Refugee camps and colonies, in Rural agrarian India, amidst Workers and Producers, but the Capitalist Marxist Brahamin chose to kill the Refugees, Peasants and workers, the Aboriginal Indigenous Minority Communities, Underclasses, Slum dwellers only in the BEST Interest of Foreign Capital Inflow.
Indian Political Economy is all about Foreign Capital inflow, FDI and FII.
After IT, it is AUTO Surge. Education and Economic Reforms, Infrastructure and Realty, Chemical Biological and Nuclear Warfare- everything meant for Economic Ethnic Cleansing.
Bhopal has proved in Better ways which may not be Proved in the Aboriginal Tribal Landscape surrounded by strategic Hamlets!
 | It's advantage India Inc Amid global economic instability, Indian corporates need to manage nimbly to sidestep dangers while taking advantage of opportunities. |
120 crore Indians can't shift to urban centres & become software engineers. So, villages , forest, fields, rivers are needed to enshrine microeconomic activities.
MNCs should think global but act localMNCs should customise governance framework to suit Indian conditions and have appropriate internal control design and review mechanism.
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http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/Opinion/opinionshome/897228639.cms
What a joke! Union Law and Justice Minister M Veerappa Moily on Tuesday said the case against Union Carbide chief Warren Anderson in connection with the Bhopal Gas Tragedy was not closed.
The TRUTH is Foreign Minsitry as well as HOME Ministry tried Best to DILUTE the case all these years and NEVER did try to get UNION Carbide or ANDERSON ! CBI had written Orders!A former senior CBI official, involved in the Bhopal gas leak case investigations, today claimed that the probe was "influenced", generating a strong reaction from Law Minister Veerappa Moily who termed the remarks as "irresponsible."
The officer, B R Lall, former Joint Director of the agency and incharge of the probe also said he was forced by the Ministry of External Affairs officials not to follow extradition of Warren Anderson, the CEO of Union Carbide Corporation when the gas leak took place 26 years ago.
"CBI investigation was influenced and commanded by some officials, as a result the justice in the Bhopal Gas leakage case got delayed, hence, denied," said Lall, the CBI officer in charge of the investigation from April 1994 to July 1995.
However, Moily, while reacting to Lall's claim, said "After retirement, people can give many statement.
"It is an irresponsible statement. This is not done at all. After retirement, people become martyrs by making such statements."
Claiming that CBI was an "under command" organisation, Lall said, "We need to make it free from government control to ensure transparency and fair probe.
In other countries, all chief investigating agencies have been given autonomy by keeping it out of the control of the judiciary, bureaucracy and executive powers."
The charges by Lall came hours after a local court in Bhopal yesterday convicted former Union Carbide, India, Chairman Keshub Mahindra and seven others for the world's worst industrial disaster, that left more than 15,000 dead on the intervening night of December 2-3 in 1984.
"I was told by the Ministry of External Affairs officials not to follow the extradition of Warren Anderson, which affected the CBI probe," Lall, who is now retired, further claimed.
After registering a case, CBI had filed its chargesheet under Section 304 IPC, which amounts to culpable homicide with maximum punishment of 10 years. However, the charges were later watered down to 304 (a), usually used in road accidents.
"I do not know what circumstances and evidences forced CBI or others involved in the proceedings to lower the section," he said.
Indian politicians, campaigners and newspapers vented outrage Tuesday at two-year prison terms handed to those found guilty over the 1984 Bhopal gas leak disaster that left thousands dead.
Anger focused on the 25 year delay in the convictions, the perceived leniency of the sentences and the feeling that the "big fish", the chief executive of the US parent group Union Carbide, had got away.
Seven Indian managers from the pesticide factory that caused the world's worst industrial accident were found guilty in a court in Bhopal on Monday and each sentenced to two years in jail.
They were all granted bail and will now begin what promises to be a lengthy appeal process.
The two-year sentences were the maximum that could be imposed after the Supreme Court in 1996 reduced the charges from culpable homicide to negligence, but many survivors said the guilty should be hanged.
"It is sad but true that we live in a country that does not understand the value of life," Bhopal activist Hemlata Sahay told AFP. "The guilty can easily get away and the victims are destined to suffer."
One survivor, Champa Devi Shukla, said she "felt like an idiot holding a placard outside the court while the accused left in big cars".
"Shame On India" headlined the Mail Today, while the front page of The Times of India read: "Justice Delayed, Denied."
The Express, The Times and NDTV news channel focused on the "man who got away" -- Union Carbide's then-chief executive Warren Anderson, who fled India after the disaster and was named as an absconder by the court.
The ageing former executive lives in suburban New York, and the Hindustan Times blamed the Indian government for allowing him "to live a life of ease far away in the US while the victims struggle from day to day".
Anderson is unlikely to ever return to India, but Law Minister M. Veerappa Moily told NDTV that the case against him was still open and that he "can be still be tried".
Shivraj Singh Chouhan, the chief minister of Madhya Pradesh state, of which Bhopal is the capital, demanded radical legal reform and more help for survivors.
"The present laws are inadequate in dealing with the tragedy," he said. "The punishment in this case is too little and laws should be amended to ensure maximum punishment."
The prosecution argued in the Bhopal court that there were design defects in the factory as well as other criminally negligent operational practices that were known to management but ignored for commercial reasons.
Dow Chemical bought Union Carbide in 1999 and says all liabilities related to the accident were cleared in a 470-million-dollar settlement reached out of court with India's government in 1989.
In a statement Monday, the company said the appropriate people had faced trial, arguing that US executives were not involved in the day-to-day running of the majority-owned Union Carbide India Ltd.
Robert Blake, the US assistant secretary of state for South Asia, told reporters in Washington that he hoped the guilty verdicts would "bring some closure to the victims and their families".
The disaster was unleashed on December 3, 1984 when a lethal plume of gas escaped from a storage tank at the Union Carbide pesticide factory, killing thousands in the surrounding slums and residential area.
Government figures put the death toll at 3,500 within three days of the leak, but the state-run Indian Council of Medical Research puts the figure at between 8,000 and 10,000 in the same period.
The ICMR has said that up to 1994, 25,000 people also died from the consequences of gas exposure, and victims groups say many are still suffering the effects today.
After the verdicts, other commentators saw repercussions for controversial legislation that the ruling Congress-led government is trying to pass to cap the legal liabilities of US nuclear firms operating in India.
The measure is key to putting into operation a 2008 civilian nuclear agreement with the United States that will give India access to US nuclear technology.
Salwa Judum' activists condemn Dantewada massacre
Oneindia - 20 May 2010Bijapur/ Raipur, May 20 (ANI): The 'Salwa Judum', a local militia formed to fight Maoists, took out a peace rally in Bijapur on Wednesday to condemn the ...Once victim, now protector - Hindustan Times
Growing up under the shadow of terror - NDTV.com
Deccan Herald - IBNLive.com
all 478 news articles »Balakrishnan wants NHRC's jurisdiction to extend to J&K
Times of India - Dhananjay Mahapatra - 3 days ago... on Naxal-infested areas to the Supreme Court had pointed out a grim scenario resulting from excesses by Salwa Judum, security forces and the Naxalites. ...New hands aboard, National Advisory Council ready for biz
Economic Times - 30 May 2010Members of the panel, such as Ms Naqvi and Mr Mander, have been critical of the Centre's handling of the Naxalite menace, particularly the Salwa Judum ...Call a spade a spade
Hindustan Times - Barkha Dutt - 28 May 2010So, to describe, for example, the Salwa Judum as a spontaneous uprising of tribals against Maoists, is to not just insult our intelligence, ...A busload of lives blown up
Express Buzz - 17 May 2010BHADRACHALAM/NEW DELHI: In yet another audacious attack, Maoists blew up a bus carrying civilians, Salwa Judum militiamen and Special Police Officers (SPOs) ...Indian Maoist attack kills estimated 35 - Financial Times
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Naxals killed 474 security men, 391 civilians in last 3 years, SC told - Times of India
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all 1558 news articles »Change of heart? Activists condemn killing of civilians
Times of India - 18 May 2010Although their PIL before the SC challenged the legality of Salwa Judum, the three petitioners on Tuesday condemned the attack in which activists of this ...PIL co-petitioners condemn Maoist attack - The Hindu
all 5 news articles »'We Have Told Muivah Not To Enter Manipur'
Tehelka - 28 May 2010The Salwa Judum has been such a disaster in Chhattisgarh, ... Why would he need a Salwa Judum? He has over 4000 new recruits training under him. ...'Does Mr Chidambaram believe in democracy?'
Rediff - 21 May 2010It is because of Salwa Judum that recruitment to the Maoists has gone up hugely. ... For a whole year after Salwa Judum (was formed) there was no Indian ...Chhattisgarh Diary: One Less Leg and a Life Hobbled - Wall Street Journal (blog)
all 2 news articles »Breaking the mistrust in Chhattisgarh
Indian Express - 21 May 2010Tomorrow, if the Supreme Court were to dismiss our PIL against Salwa Judum and ensure full impunity for the excesses by the police and vigilantes, ...Here, silence speaks volumes - Times of India Asian News International (ANI)
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all 201 news articles »100 civilian staff working in Chhattisgarh withdrawn
Press Trust of India - 4 days agoThe officer was attached with the Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB) battalion that is deployed in Dantewada district to protect Salwa Judum workers and carry out ...
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Strategic Hamlet Program - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Strategic Hamlet
PSYOP of the Strategic Hamlet in Vietnam
The Pentagon Papers, Vol. 2, Chapter 2, "The Strategic Hamlet Program"
Strategic Hamlet Program (warfare) -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia
Failure of the Strategic Hamlet Program During the Vietnam War ...
Strategic Hamlet Program - Timelines.com
In Vietnam, strategic hamlets would consist of villages consolidated and reshaped to create a defensible perimeter. The peasants themselves would be given ...
timelines.com/1961/strategic-hamlet-program - CachedStrategic Hamlet Program - encyclopedia article - Citizendium
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Bhopal gas tragedy: America's double standards, say someNDTV.com - - 1 hour ago Hours after a verdict drove home the point that justice, after 25 years, is nowhere on the horizon of a city left gasping for breath, America's reaction to the sentence in the Bhopal gas tragedy seemed tactless, even insulting. ... Indian papers deplore 'shameful' Bhopal sentencesBBC News - - 3 hours ago The Indian press has expressed outrage at the sentences handed down to Union Carbide employees found guilty of negligence over the gas leak that killed thousands of people in Bhopal in 1984. One paper described the two-year sentences given to eight ... Outrage in India over Bhopal disaster verdictsAFP - - 4 hours ago NEW DELHI — Indian politicians, campaigners and newspapers vented outrage Tuesday at two-year prison terms handed to those found guilty over the 1984 Bhopal gas leak disaster that left thousands dead. Anger focused on the 25-year delay in the ...
No question of watering down charges: Former SC judgeNDTV.com - 56 minutes ago Former Chief Justice of India AM Ahmadi has told NDTV that he had worked within the framework of the law and there was no question of watering down charges in the Bhopal gas tragedy case. In 1996, a Supreme Court bench headed by Justice Ahmadi had ... Bhopal gas verdict slammed, demand for stricter lawHindustan Times - 1 hour ago Former Supreme Court Chief Justice AH Ahmadi today rejected criticism of dilution of charge against Union Carbide executives in Bhopal gas tragedy case, saying in criminal law there was no concept of vicarious liability. Activists demanded reforms of ... Case against Anderson not closed, says MoilyNDTV.com - 4 hours ago Amid anger and criticism over the verdict in the Bhopal gas tragedy, Law Minister Veerappa Moily has said that the case against Warren Anderson is not closed. (Read & Watch: Anderson can still be tried: Moily) Anderson was the top executive of US-based ... Bhopal tragedy survivors want convicts' punishment enhancedSify - 1 hour ago Describing Bhopal gas tragedy case verdict as a judicial disaster, organisations representing survivors of the gas leak here Tuesday demanded enhancement of the two-year jail term awarded to seven Union Carbide officials. ... No mistake in my order on Anderson: ex-CJIIBNLive.com - 2 hours ago New Delhi: Former chief justice of India Justice AM Ahmadi, who delivered the judgement on September 13, 1996 diluting charges in the Bhopal gas leak tragedy, has defended his verdict saying that he did not commit any mistake. ... Anderson can still be tried for Bhopal gas tragedy: MoilySify - 2 hours ago Union Law Minister M. Veerappa Moily Tuesday pointed out that the case of criminal culpability against US multinational Union Carbide Corporation's former chairman Warren Anderson is 'not yet closed' and he can still be tried. ... Bhopal verdict shows need to review law processes: MoilySify - 2 hours ago New Delhi: Union Law Minister Veerappa Moily on Tuesday said the time has come to 'revisit' the process of justice and investigations, following the delayed verdict of the Bhopal gas tragedy. 'There shouldn't only be reactions and talking, ... | Timeline of articlesNumber of sources covering this story
Videos Bhopal gas verdict, an instance of delayed justice: Moily Asian News International (ANI) - 3 hours ago Watch video  Reliving the Bhopal nightmare NDTV.com - 6 hours ago Watch video  Experts on why it took so long for the Bhopal gas verdict NDTV.com - 6 hours ago Watch video  Bhopal: 2 Years for 20,000 Lives NDTV.com - 6 hours ago Watch video  Inside Story - Bhopal: Too little, too late? Al Jazeera - 6 hours ago Watch video |
"As far as Anderson is concerned, the case is not closed. The CBI has filed charge sheet. There is one person here, who has not responded to the summons or replied to the charges. He has absconded and was declared a proclaimed offender," said Moily.
Earlier on Monday evening, Moily said the Government of India has made all possible efforts to bring him to justice, but the United States had not cooperated.
"We did our best but what can we do. The other country has also to cooperate," said Moily.
Anderson was the top executive of US-based Union Carbide Corporation (UCC) in 1984, when the world's worst industrial disaster swept out over Bhopal in a gas leak from a pesticide plant owned by Union Carbide.
Anderson was arrested after the gas leak, but was then inexplicably allowed to leave India five days later on December 7, 1984. Since then, he has ignored repeated court summons.
The United States has, however, expressed the hope that the Bhopal gas tragedy verdict would not hamper growing ties with India.
Reacting to the Bhopal gas verdict, US Assistant Secretary of State for South and Central Asia, Robert Blake said: "I don't expect this verdict to reopen any new inquiries or anything like that. 'On the contrary, we hope that this is going to help to bring closure."
On Monday, a District Magistrate's Court in Bhopal convicted all eight accused on of negligence under Section 304 (a) for the tragedy.
The court also granted bail to seven of the eight accused and released them on submission of a bond and a surety of Rs 25,000 each.
The eight accused are Keshub Mahendra, Vijay Gokhle, Kishore Kamdar, J Mukund, S P Choudhary, K V Shetty and S I Qureshi and R B Roy Choudhary.
Out of the accused R B Roy Choudhary, then former Assistant Works Manager Union Carbide India Ltd (UCIL), Mumbai, died during the trial. Warren Andreson, the chairman of Union Carbide Worldwide, has been designated as absconder.
The FIR in the tragedy was filed on December 3, 1984 and the case was transferred to Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) on December 6, 1984. The CBI filed the charge sheet after investigation on December 1, 1987.
In the early hours of December 3, 1984, around 40 metric tonnes of toxic methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas leaked into the atmosphere and was carried by wind to surrounding slums.
The government says around 3,500 died in the disaster. Rights activists, however, claim that 25,000 people have died so far.
NDTV reports:
Hours after a verdict drove home the point that justice, after 25 years, is nowhere on the horizon of a city left gasping for breath, America's reaction to the sentence in the Bhopal gas tragedy seemed tactless, even insulting. US Assistant Secretary of State Robert Blake said, "I don't expect this verdict to reopen any new inquiries or anything like that. On the contrary, we hope that this is going to help to bring closure, to the victims and their families."
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Read more at:
Read more at: http://www.ndtv.com/news/india/bhopal-gas-tragedy-americas-double-standards-say-some-30577.php?cp
Indian papers deplore 'shameful' Bhopal sentences | ||||||||||
 Many Bhopal protesters said the verdicts were 'too little, too late' The Indian press has expressed outrage at the sentences handed down to Union Carbide employees found guilty of negligence over the gas leak that killed thousands of people in Bhopal in 1984. One paper described the two-year sentences given to eight former Union Carbide executives as "absurdly light punishment" and "a travesty of justice". Several accused successive Indian governments of kowtowing to US business interests in their failure to bring the former Union Carbide head, Warren Anderson, to justice. Many papers were also indignant at the levels of compensation awarded to victims of the disaster and their families. Bangalore-based Deccan Herald It is a shameful indictment of our lethargic judiciary… This verdict is a travesty of justice… Clearly the charge does not reflect the enormity of the crime committed…. it is just a rap on the knuckles. As for Anderson, he has escaped even this absurdly light punishment. If justice has eluded the victims, this is because the governments of the US and India have colluded to protect the guilty, including Anderson… Successive governments have been eager to please US business corporations in order to attract more investment rather than pursue justice. New Delhi-based The Asian Age The scale of human suffering in the wake of the tragedy… appears quite like that of a chemical weapons strike by a terrorist outfit… New Delhi should honour the dead and the suffering even at this late stage and press Washington to use all available laws to send Mr Anderson to face trial in India. Blog by Shobhan Saxena in Mumbai-based The Times of India Just two years in jail for the men who committed the worst crime against the people of this country. And this mockery of justice after such a long wait. Twenty six years after 40 tonnes of lethal gas seeped into the lungs of Bhopal, some 17,000 men and women are still waiting for the so-called compensation… In all these years, the poor victims have done everything they could to get justice and compensation… Today, they were denied justice. Today, they were told that they should be happy with the peanuts thrown at them by Union Carbide. Today, India proved once again that it doesn't care for its poor… Today, India proved that it doesn't really care for its people, particularly if they have been slaughtered by powerful people from the most powerful nation in the world. Instead of taking on America and fighting for justice for its poor, India is more than happy to sell its dead cheap. New Delhi-based Hindustan Times Two years in jail and bail of 25,000 rupees for the eight accused (one now deceased) in the Bhopal gas case will do nothing to lessen the poisonous atmosphere that has clouded the controversial tragedy for 25 long years…. [It] should have been an open-and-shut case of criminal and corporate liability. Yet, a quarter of a century down the line, all the victims have managed to get is 12,410 rupees each for the dead and for the survivors of a lifetime of disability and pain both for themselves and their progeny. Chandigarh-based The Tribune The nation is bound to be disappointed over Monday's ruling of a Bhopal court in the Union Carbide gas tragedy case which concerned the world's worst industrial disaster to date… The victims of the gas tragedy and the kith and kin of the deceased may have decided to knock on the doors of the Madhya Pradesh High Court. But they have a long battle ahead. Most of them have got only a measly compensation so far. While there is no escape from fighting for justice because the killer gas has hit the survivors in their genes, it may take many more years for the judiciary to pronounce the last word in the case. New Delhi-based The Indian Express The people of Bhopal continue to suffer from the 1984 leak and its botched aftermath - if not actually physiologically, then in terms of the dark shadows that have undeservedly become attached to their city's reputation. The accident, after all, could have happened anywhere in this country. Yet it's Bhopal that is instantly associated with the idea "industrial accident". BBC Monitoringselects and translates news from radio, television, press, news agencies and the internet from 150 countries in more than 70 languages. It is based in Caversham, UK, and has several bureaux abroad. Print Sponsor Ads by Google
|  LATEST NEWS FEATURES AND ANALYSIS  'Night of the gas'Bhopal survivors still fighting for justice 25 years on BACKGROUND IN VIDEO  BBC sports reporter recalls being caught up in event  Former police chief remembers Bhopal disaster How Bhopal disaster changed lives Memories of the Bhopal disaster A brighter future for Bhopal? RELATED INTERNET LINKS The BBC is not responsible for the content of external internet sites  News feedsMOST POPULAR STORIES NOW
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Strategic Hamlet Program
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In 1961, U.S. advisors in South Vietnam, along with the Diem regime, began the implementation of a plan attempted to isolate rural peasants from contact with and influence by the National Liberation Front (NLF). The Strategic Hamlet Program, along with its predecessor, the Rural Community Development Program, played an important role in the shaping of events in South Vietnam during the late 1950s and early 1960s. Both of these programs attempted to separate rural peasants from Communist insurgents by creating "fortified villages". The program backfired drastically and ultimately led to a decrease in support for Diem's regime and an increase in sympathy for Communist efforts.
Contents[hide] |
[edit] Background and Precursor Program
Starting around 1954, Viet Minh sympathizers in the South were subject to escalating repression by the RVN. In 1959 the Vietnam National Liberation Front was formed and rapidly achieved de facto control over large sections of the South Vietnamese countryside. At the time, it is believed that there were approximately 10,000 Communist insurgents throughout South Vietnam. Recognizing the danger that the guerrillas posed if they had the support of the peasants, President Diem and his brother, Ngo Dinh Nhu implemented the Rural Community Development Program (later known as "Agroville") in 1959. Based partly on the success of a similar program in Malaya used by the British to suppress a communist uprising beginning in 1948, the Agroville Plan endeavored to remove the "neutral" population from guerrilla contact. Through direct force and/or incentives, peasants in rural communities were separated and relocated into large communities called "Agrovilles". By 1960, there were twenty-three of these Agrovilles, each consisting of many thousands of people.This mass resettlement created a strong backlash from peasants and forced the central government to rethink its strategy. A report put out by the Caravelle group, consisting of among others, Bishop Thuc (a brother of Diem) described the situation as follows:
Tens of thousands of people are being mobilized… to take up a life in collectivity, to construct beautiful but useless agrovilles which tire the people, lose their affection, increase their resentment and most of all give an additional terrain for propaganda to the enemy.[citation needed]
[edit] Strategic Hamlet Program
In late 1961, President Kennedy sent Roger Hilsman, then director of the State Department's Bureau of Intelligence and Research, to assess the situation in Vietnam firsthand. There Hilsman met Sir Robert Thompson, head of the British Advisory Mission to South Vietnam and a veteran of the Malayan counter-insurgency effort. The two discussed counter-insurgency doctrine and Thompson shared his revised system of resettlement and population security, a system he proposed to Diem later in the year and that would eventually become the Strategic Hamlet Program.In Vietnam, strategic hamlets would consist of villages consolidated and reshaped to create a defensible perimeter. The peasants themselves would be given weapons and trained in self-defense. Moreover, the strategic hamlets would not be isolated; instead, they would function as a network. The first hamlets would be placed in secure areas, free of the enemy; new hamlets would then be added slowly to create a secure, expanding frontier in what was known as the "oil blot" principle. But, Thompson said, it was important that the strategic hamlets provide more than just physical security. The hamlets should be used as an administrative tool to institute reforms and to improve the peasants' lives economically, politically, socially, and culturally.
This would strengthen the tie between the peasants and the central government. Hilsman later summarized this theory of the Strategic Hamlet Program in a policy document entitled "A Strategic Concept for South Vietnam," which President Kennedy read and endorsed.[1]
President Diem also liked the idea of Strategic Hamlets. In an April 1962 speech, he outlined his hopes for the Program:
... strategic hamlets represented the basic elements in the war undertaken by our people against our three enemies: communism, discord, and underdevelopment. In this concept they also represent foundation of the Vietnamese society where values are reassessed according the personalist revolution where social, cultural, and economic reform will improve the living conditions of the large working class down to the remotest village.[citation needed]
[edit] Problematic implementation
Although many people in both the U.S. government and the government of South Vietnam (GVN) agreed that the Strategic Hamlet Program was strong in theory, its actual implementation, beginning in early 1962, was criticized on several grounds. Roger Hilsman himself later claimed that the GVN's execution of program constituted a "total misunderstanding of what the [Strategic Hamlet] program should try to do."[2][edit] Forced relocation
In the best case scenario, restructuring peasant villages to create a defensible perimeter would require the forced relocation of some of the peasants on the outskirts of the existing villages. To ease the burden, those forced to move were supposed to be financially compensated, but they were not always paid by the GVN forces. To make matters worse, their old homes were often burned before their eyes.[3]President Diem and his brother Nhu, who oversaw the GVN side of the Program, decided—contrary to Hilsman's and Thompson's theory—that in most cases they would relocate entire villages rather than simply restructuring them. This decision led to unnecessary amounts of forced relocation that was deeply unpopular among the peasantry. The mostly-Buddhist peasantry practiced ancestor worship, an important part of their religion that was disrupted by being forced out of their villages and away from their ancestors' graves. Some who resisted the resettlement were summarily executed by GVN forces.[4]
[edit] Corruption
As stated previously, promised compensation for resettled peasants was not always forthcoming and instead found its way in the pockets of GVN officials. Peasants were also promised money in exchange for working to build the new villages and fortifications; once again some corrupt officials kept the money for themselves. Wealthier peasants sometimes bribed their way out of working on the construction, leaving more labor for the poorer peasants. Although the U.S. provided materials like sheet metal and barbed wire, corrupt officials would force the locals to "buy" the materials intended to provide them with protection.[5][edit] Security shortcomings
Perhaps the greatest shortcoming of the Strategic Hamlet Program as implemented on the ground was its failure to provide the basic security envisioned by its proponents. This failure was partly due to poor placement of the hamlets. Ignoring the "oil-blot" principle, the GVN began building strategic hamlets as fast as possible and seemingly without considering "geographical priorities," according to a U.S. official. The randomly placed hamlets were isolated, not mutually supporting, and tempting targets for the Vietcong.[6]Each hamlet was given a radio with which to call for ARVN support, but in fact ARVN forces were unreliable in responding to calls for help, especially when attacks occurred after nightfall. The villagers were also given weapons and training, but were only expected to hold out until conventional reinforcements arrived. Once it became clear those forces could not be relied upon, many villagers proved unwilling to fight even small Vietcong detachments, which could then capture the villagers' weapons. "Why should we die for weapons?" asked one Vietnamese peasant.[7]
[edit] Eventual Failure
Despite the Diem regime's attempt to put a positive spin on its execution of the Strategic Hamlet Program, by mid-1963 it was becoming clear to many that the Program was failing. American military advisors like John Paul Vann started criticizing the Program in their official reports. They also began expressing their concerns to reporters who began to investigate more closely. David Halberstam's coverage of the Program's shortcomings even caught the eye of President Kennedy.[8]The Strategic Hamlet Program was exposed as an almost complete failure in the aftermath of the November 1, 1963 coup that left Diem and his brother Nhu murdered. US officials discovered, for example, that only 20% of the 8600 hamlets that the Diem regime had reported "Complete" met the minimum American standards of security and readiness. The situation had passed the point of possible recovery. The U.S. government never officially acknowledged the end of the Strategic Hamlet Program, but it quickly disappeared from diplomatic correspondence in early 1964.
On the ground in Vietnam, the demise of the program was much easier to see. By the end of 1963, empty hamlets lined country roads, stripped of valuable metal by the Vietcong and the fleeing peasants: "The rows of roofless houses looked like villages of play huts that children had erected and then whimsically abandoned," according to Neil Sheehan.[9]
Years later Roger Hilsman stated his belief that the strategic hamlet concept was executed so poorly by the Diem regime and the GVN "that it was useless, worse than useless."[10]
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ Roger Hilsman, To Move a Nation, (New York: Doubleday and Company, 1967), 427-438; The Pentagon Papers: Senator Gravel Edition, 5 vols. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971), 2:139ff; Robert Thompson, No Exit From Vietnam, (London: Chatto & Windus, 1969).
- ^ Hilsman, To Move a Nation, 440.
- ^ Pentagon Papers, 2:149; Francois Sully, "South Vietnam: New Strategy" Newsweek (9 April 1962), 45-46.
- ^ Neil Sheehan, A Bright Shining Lie: John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam, (New York: Random House, 1988), 309-310; Sam Castan, "Vietnam's Two Wars." Look (28 Jan. 1964), 32-36; Kuno Knoebl, Victor Charlie (New York: Frederick A. Praegar Publishers, 1967), 257.
- ^ Sheehan, Bright Shining Lie, 310.
- ^ Foreign Relations of the United States: 1961-1963: Vietnam, 4 vols. (Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1991), 2:429; Hilsman, To Move a Nation, 441.
- ^ Foreign Relations, 4:688; Castan, "Vietnam's Two Wars," 35; Knoebl, Victor Charlie, 261.
- ^ John M. Newman, JFK and Vietnam: Deception, Intrigue, and the Struggle for Power (New York: Time Warner Books, 1992), 316-330; David Halberstam, "Rift With Vietnam on Strategy Underlined by 2 Red Attacks," New York Times (16 Sept. 1963), 2; David Halberstam, "Vietnamese Reds Gain in Key Area," New York Times (15 Aug. 1963), 1; Foreign Relations, 4:237.
- ^ Hilsman, To Move a Nation, 522-523; Foreign Relations, 4:687, 4:715; Sheehan, Bright Shining Lie, 365.
- ^ Episode 11: Vietnam, "An interview with Roger Hilsman," from the National Security Archive.
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Colonialism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about territorial expansion. For the architectural style, see American colonial architecture.
See colony and colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism. Also see Colonization (disambiguation)
Colonialism in World History often refers to a period of history from the 15th to the 20th century when European nations established colonies on other continents. The reasons for the practice of colonialism at this time include[1]:
- The expected profits to be made through trade and exploitation of resources.
- To expand the power and prestige of the metropole.
- To convert the indigenous population to the metropole's religion, often through Christian missions.
- To modernize "backward" people, introducing new technology, new methods and "civilization".
- To create an outlet for the surplus energies of the metropole.
[edit] Definitions of colonialism
The Merriam-Webster Dictionary offers four definitions including "something characteristic of a colony" and "control by one power over a dependent area or people".[4]
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy "uses the term colonialism to describe the process of European settlement and political control over the rest of the world, including Americas, Australia, and parts of Africa and Asia." It discusses the distinction between colonialism and imperialism and states that "Given the difficulty of consistently distinguishing between the two terms, this entry will use colonialism as a broad concept that refers to the project of European political domination from the sixteenth to the twentieth centuries that ended with the national liberation movements of the 1960s."[5]
In his preface to Colonialism: a theoretical overview by Jürgen Osterhammel, Roger Tignor states that "For Osterhammel, the essence of colonialism is the existence of colonies, which are by definition governed differently from other territories such as protectorates or informal spheres of influence."[6] In the book itself, Osterhammel asks "How can colonialism be defined independently from colony?" [7] He determines on a three-sentence definition.
Colonialism is a relationship between an indigenous (or forcibly imported) majority and a minority of foreign invaders. The fundamental decisions affecting the lives of the colonized people are made and implemented by the colonial rulers in pursuit of interests that are often defined in a distant metropolis. Rejecting cultural compromises with the colonized population, the colonisers are convinced of their own superiority and their ordained mandate to rule.[8]
[edit] Types of colonialism
Historians often distinguish between two forms of colonialism, chiefly based on the number of people from the colonising country who settle in the colony:- Settler colonialism involved a large number of colonists, typically seeking fertile land to farm.
- Exploitation colonialism involved fewer colonists, typically interested in extracting resources to export to the metropole. This category includes trading posts but it also includes much larger colonies where the colonists would provide much of the administration and own much of the land and other capital but rely on indigenous people for labour.
A plantation colony is normally considered to fit the model of exploitation colonialism. However, in this case there may be other immigrants to the colony - slaves to grow the cash crop for export.
In some cases, settler colonialism took place in substantially pre-populated areas and the result was either an ethnically mixed population (such as the mestizos of the Americas), or a racially divided population, such as in French Algeria or Southern Rhodesia.
A League of Nations mandate was legally very different from a colony. However, there was some similarity with exploitation colonialism in the mandate system.
[edit] History of colonialism
Main articles: History of colonialism and Chronology of colonialism
Modern colonialism started with the Age of Discovery. Portugal and Spain discovered new lands across the oceans and built trading posts. For some people, it is this building of colonies across oceans that differentiates colonialism from other types of expansionism. These new lands were divided between the Portuguese Empire and Spanish Empire, first by the papal bull Inter caetera and then by the Treaty of Tordesillas and the Treaty of Zaragoza (1529).
The seventeenth century saw the creation of the British Empire, the French colonial empire and the Dutch Empire. It also saw the establishment of some Swedish overseas colonies and a Danish colonial empire.
The spread of colonial empires was reduced in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries by the American Revolutionary War and the Latin American wars of independence. However, many new colonies were established after this time, including for the German colonial empire and Belgian colonial empire. In the late nineteenth century, many European powers were involved in the Scramble for Africa.
The Russian Empire and Ottoman Empire existed at the same time as the above empires, but these are often not considered colonial because they did not expand over oceans. Rather, these empires expanded through the more traditional route of conquest of neighbouring territories. There was, though, some Russian colonization of the Americas across the Bering Strait. The Empire of Japan modelled itself on European colonial empires. The United States of America gained overseas territories after the Spanish-American War and the term American Empire was coined.
After the first world war, the German colonial empire and much of the Ottoman Empire were divided between the victorious allies as League of Nations mandates. These territories were divided into three classes according to how quickly it was deemed that they would be ready for independence. However, decolonisation did not really get going until after the second world war. In 1962, the United Nations' Special Committee on Decolonization, often called the Committee of 24, was set up to encourage this process.
See also: First European colonization wave (15th century–19th century) and Second European colonization wave (19th century–20th century)
[edit] Neocolonialism
The term neocolonialism has been used to refer to a variety of things since the decolonisation efforts after World War II. Generally it does not refer to a type of colonialism but rather colonialism by other means. Specifically, the accusation that the relationship between stronger and weaker countries is similar to exploitation colonialism, without the stronger country having to build or maintain colonies. Such accusations typically focus on economic relationships and interference in the politics of weaker countries by stronger countries.[edit] Colonialism and the history of thought
[edit] Colonialism and geography
Settlers acted as the link between the natives and the imperial hegemony, bridging the geographical gap between the colonizers and colonized. Painter, J. and Jeffrey, A. affirm that certain advances aided the expansion of European states. With tools such as cartography, shipbuilding, navigation, mining and agricultural productivity colonizers had an upper hand. Their awareness of the Earth's surface and abundance of practical skills provided colonizers with a knowledge which in turn created power.Painter and Jeffrey argue that geography was not and is not an objective science, rather it is based on assumptions of the physical world. It may have given "The West" an advantage when it came to exploration, however it also created zones of racial inferiority. Geographical beliefs such as environmental determinism, the view that some parts of the world are underdeveloped because of the climate, legitimized colonialism and created notions of skewed evolution.[9] These are now seen as elementary concepts. Political geographers maintain that colonial behavior was reinforced by the physical mapping of the world, visually separating "them" and "us". Geographers are primarily focused on the spaces of colonialism and imperialism, more specifically, the material and symbolic appropriation of space enabling colonialism.[10]
[edit] Colonialism and imperialism
A colony is part of an empire and so colonialism is closely related to imperialism. The initial assumption is that colonialism and imperialism are interchangeable, however Robert Young suggests that imperialism is the concept while colonialism is the practice. Colonialism is based on an imperial outlook, thereby creating a consequential relationship between the two. Through an empire, colonialism is established and capitalism is expanded, on the other hand a capitalist economy naturally enforces an empire. In the next section Marxists make a case for this mutually reinforcing relationship.[edit] Marxist view of colonialism
Marxism views colonialism as a form of capitalism, enforcing exploitation and social change. Working within the global capitalist system, colonialism is closely associated with uneven development, he thought. It is an "instrument of wholesale destruction, dependency and systematic exploitation producing distorted economies, socio-psychological disorientation, massive poverty and neocolonial dependency." [11] Colonies are constructed into modes of production. The search for raw materials and the current search for new investment opportunities is a result of inter-capitalist rivalry for capital accumulation. Lenin regarded colonialism as the root cause of imperialism, as imperialism was distinguished by monopoly capitalism via colonialism.[12][edit] Liberalism, capitalism and colonialism
Classical liberals generally opposed colonialism and imperialism, including Adam Smith, Frederik Bastiat, Richard Cobden, John Bright, Henry Richard, Herbert Spencer, H. R. Fox Bourne, Edward Morel, Josephine Butler, W. J. Fox and William Ewart Gladstone. Moreover, American revolution was the first anti-colonial rebellion, inspiring others.[2][13]Adam Smith wrote in Wealth of Nations that Britain should liberate all of its colonies and also noted that it would be economically beneficial for British people in the average, although the merchants having mercantilist privileges would lose.[2]
The farmers in India under British colonial rule were also forced to grow certain crops, sell them to Britain, to pay oppressive taxes etc.[13][14]
[edit] Post-colonialism
Main articles: Post-colonialism and Postcolonial literature
Post-colonialism (a.k.a. post-colonial theory) refers to a set of theories in philosophy and literature that grapple with the legacy of colonial rule. In this sense, postcolonial literature may be considered a branch of Postmodern literature concerned with the political and cultural independence of peoples formerly subjugated in colonial empires. Many practitioners take Edward Said's book Orientalism (1978) to be the theory's founding work (although French theorists such as Aimé Césaire and Frantz Fanon made similar claims decades before Said).Edward Said analyzed the works of Balzac, Baudelaire and Lautréamont, exploring how they were both influenced by and helped to shape a societal fantasy of European racial superiority. Post-colonial fictional writers interact with the traditional colonial discourse, but modify or subvert it; for instance by retelling a familiar story from the perspective of an oppressed minor character in the story. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak's Can the Subaltern Speak? (1998) gave its name to the Subaltern Studies.
In A Critique of Postcolonial Reason (1999), Spivak explored how major works of European metaphysics (e.g., Kant, Hegel) not only tend to exclude the subaltern from their discussions, but actively prevent non-Europeans from occupying positions as fully human subjects. Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit (1807) is famous for its explicit ethnocentrism, in considering the Western civilization as the most accomplished of all, while Kant also allowed some traces of racialism to enter his work.
[edit] Impact of colonialism and colonization
Main article: Impact and evaluation of colonialism and colonization
Debate about the perceived negative and positive aspects (spread of virulent diseases, unequal social relations, exploitation, enslavement, infrastructures, medical advances, new institutions, technological advancements etc.) of colonialism has occurred for centuries, amongst both colonizer and colonized, and continues to the present day.[15] The questions of miscegenation; the alleged ties between colonial enterprises, genocides — see the Herero Genocide and the Armenian Genocide — and the Holocaust; and the questions of the nature of imperialism, dependency theory and neocolonialism (in particular the Third World debt) continue to retain their actuality.[edit] Impact on health
See also: Globalization and disease and Columbian Exchange
Encounters between explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced new diseases which sometimes caused local epidemics of extraordinary virulence.[16] For example, Smallpox, measles, malaria, yellow fever, and others were unknown in pre-Columbian America.[17]Disease killed the entire native (Guanches) population of the Canary Islands in the 16th century. Half the native population of Hispaniola in 1518 was killed by smallpox. Smallpox also ravaged Mexico in the 1520s, killing 150,000 in Tenochtitlán alone, including the emperor, and Peru in the 1530s, aiding the European conquerors. Measles killed a further two million Mexican natives in the 1600s. In 1618–1619, smallpox wiped out 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans.[18] Smallpox epidemics in 1780–1782 and 1837–1838 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians.[19] Some believe that the death of up to 95% of the Native American population of the New World was caused by Old World diseases.[20] Over the centuries, the Europeans had developed high degrees of immunity to these diseases, while the indigenous peoples had no such immunity.[21]
Smallpox decimated the native population of Australia, killing around 50% of Indigenous Australians in the early years of British colonisation.[22] It also killed many New Zealand Māori.[23] As late as 1848–49, as many as 40,000 out of 150,000 Hawaiians are estimated to have died of measles, whooping cough and influenza. Introduced diseases, notably smallpox, nearly wiped out the native population of Easter Island.[24] In 1875, measles killed over 40,000 Fijians, approximately one-third of the population.[25] Ainu population decreased drastically in the 19th century, due in large part to infectious diseases brought by Japanese settlers pouring into Hokkaido.[26]
Researchers concluded that syphilis was carried from the New World to Europe after Columbus's voyages. The findings suggested Europeans could have carried the nonvenereal tropical bacteria home, where the organisms may have mutated into a more deadly form in the different conditions of Europe.[27] The disease was more frequently fatal than it is today. Syphilis was a major killer in Europe during the Renaissance.[28] The first cholera pandemic began in Bengal, then spread across India by 1820. 10,000 British troops and countless Indians died during this pandemic.[29] Between 1736 and 1834 only some 10% of East India Company's officers survived to take the final voyage home.[30] Waldemar Haffkine, who mainly worked in India, was the first microbiologist who developed and used vaccines against cholera and bubonic plague.
As early as 1803, the Spanish Crown organized a mission (the Balmis expedition) to transport the smallpox vaccine to the Spanish colonies, and establish mass vaccination programs there.[31] By 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans.[32] Under the direction of Mountstuart Elphinstone a program was launched to propagate smallpox vaccination in India.[33] From the beginning of the 20th century onwards, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for all colonial powers.[34] The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk.[35] In the 20th century, the world saw the biggest increase in its population in human history due to lessening of the mortality rate in many countries due to medical advances.[36] World population has grown from 1.6 billion in 1900 to an estimated 6.7 billion today.[37]
A discussion on the nature of how diseases were spread has often been scuttled by descendants of colonialists in order to conceal the actual origins of the how certain indigenous populations were inoculated with these new diseases. The argument here is that once European colonists discovered that indigenous populations were not immune to certain diseases, they attempted to further the spread of diseases in order to gain military advantages and subjugate local peoples. The most famous is that of Jeffery Amherst.[38] Many scholars have argued that the body of evidence which sees this practice as having been executed on a larger scale across north America is weak. Yet growing evidence is showing that other indigenous communities were purposefully inoculated citing oral history from the descendants of said peoples. It has been regarded as one of the first instances of bio-terrorism or use of biological weapons in the history of warfare. For further information see[39] and [40] There is, however, only one documented case of germ warfare, involving British commander Jeffrey Amherst.[41] It is uncertain whether this documented British attempt successfully infected the Indians.[42]
[edit] Food security
After 1492, a global exchange of previously local crops and livestock breeds occurred. Key crops involved in this exchange included the tomato, maize, potato and manioc going from the New World to the Old. At the founding of the Ming dynasty in 1368, China's population was reported to be close to 60 million, and toward the end of the dynasty in 1644 it might have approached 150 million.[43] New crops that had come to Asia from the Americas via the Spanish colonizers in the 16th century, including maize and sweet potatoes, contributed to the population growth.[44] Although it was initially considered to be unfit for human consumption, the potato became an important staple crop in northern Europe.[45] Maize (corn) was introduced to Europe in the 15th century. Due to its high yields, it quickly spread through Europe, and later to Africa and India. Maize was probably introduced into India by the Portuguese in the 16th century.[46]Since being introduced by Portuguese traders in the 16th century,[47] maize and manioc have replaced traditional African crops as the continent's most important staple food crops.[48] Manioc (cassava) is sometimes described as the 'bread of the tropics'.[49] Alfred W. Crosby speculated that increased production of maize, manioc, and other American crops "enabled the slave traders drew many, perhaps most, of their cargoes from the rain forest areas, precisely those areas where American crops enabled heavier settlement than before."[50]
[edit] Slave trade
Slavery has existed to varying extents, forms and periods in almost all cultures and continents.[51] Between the 7th and 20th centuries, Arab slave trade (also known as slavery in the East) took approximately 18 million slaves from Africa via trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean routes.[52] Between the 15th and the 19th centuries, the Atlantic slave trade took up to 12 million slaves to the New World.[53]From 1654 until 1865, slavery for life was legal within the boundaries of the present United States.[54] According to the 1860 U.S. census, nearly four million slaves were held in a total population of just over 12 million in the 15 states in which slavery was legal.[55] Of all 1,515,605 families in the 15 slave states, 393,967 held slaves (roughly one in four),[55] amounting to 8% of all American families.[56]
In 1807, the United Kingdom became one of the first nations to end its own participation in the slave trade.[57] Furthermore, between 1808 and 1860, the British West Africa Squadron seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.[58] This was done "to sweep the African and American Seas of the atrocious Commerce with which they are now infested".[59] Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against "the usurping King of Lagos", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.[60] In 1827, Britain declared the slave trade piracy, punishable by death.[61]
[edit] See also
[edit] Notes
- ^ David Armitage, ed. Theories of Empire, 1450–1800 (1998)
- ^ a b c Liberal Anti-Imperialism, professor Daniel Klein, 1.7.2004
- ^ "Colonialism". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. 2010. http://www.collinslanguage.com/results.aspx?context=3&reversed=False&action=define&homonym=0&text=colonialism. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
- ^ "Colonialism". Merriam-Webbster. Merriam-Webster. 2010. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/colonialism. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
- ^ Margaret Kohn (2006). "Colonialism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/colonialism/. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
- ^ Tignor, Roger (2005). preface to Colonialism: a theoretical overview. Markus Weiner Publishers. p. x. ISBN 1558763406, 9781558763401. http://books.google.com/books?id=CMfksrnWaUkC&pg=PR10#v=onepage. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
- ^ Osterhammel, Jürgen (2005). Colonialism: a theoretical overview. trans. Shelley Frisch. Markus Weiner Publishers. p. 15. ISBN 1558763406, 9781558763401. http://books.google.com/books?id=CMfksrnWaUkC&pg=PA15#v=onepage. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
- ^ Osterhammel, Jürgen (2005). Colonialism: a theoretical overview. trans. Shelley Frisch. Markus Weiner Publishers. p. 16. ISBN 1558763406, 9781558763401. http://books.google.com/books?id=CMfksrnWaUkC&pg=PA16#v=onepage. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
- ^ "Painter, J. & Jeffrey, A., 2009. Political Geography 2nd ed., Sage. "Imperialism" pg 23 (GIC)
- ^ Gallaher, C. et al., 2008. Key Concepts in Political Geography, Sage Publications Ltd. "Imperialism/Colonialism" pg 5 (GIC)
- ^ Dictionary of Human Geography, "Colonialism"
- ^ Young (2001)
- ^ a b Johannorberg.net 2004-9-4
- ^ Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World, Mike Davis, 2000
- ^ Come Back, Colonialism, All is Forgiven
- ^ Kenneth F. Kiple, ed. The Cambridge Historical Dictionary of Disease (2003)
- ^ Alfred W. Crosby, Jr., The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (1974)
- ^ Smallpox The Fight to Eradicate a Global Scourge, David A. Koplow
- ^ "The first smallpox epidemic on the Canadian Plains: In the fur-traders' words", National Institutes of Health
- ^ The Story Of... Smallpox – and other Deadly Eurasian Germs
- ^ Stacy Goodling, "Effects of European Diseases on the Inhabitants of the New World"
- ^ "Smallpox Through History". Archived from the original on 2009-10-31. http://www.webcitation.org/query?id=1257008292443871.
- ^ New Zealand Historical Perspective
- ^ How did Easter Island's ancient statues lead to the destruction of an entire ecosystem?, The Independent
- ^ Fiji School of Medicine
- ^ Meeting the First Inhabitants, TIMEasia.com, 21 August 2000
- ^ Genetic Study Bolsters Columbus Link to Syphilis, New York Times, January 15, 2008
- ^ Columbus May Have Brought Syphilis to Europe, LiveScience
- ^ Cholera's seven pandemics. CBC News. December 2, 2008
- ^ Sahib: The British Soldier in India, 1750-1914 by Richard Holmes
- ^ Dr. Francisco de Balmis and his Mission of Mercy, Society of Philippine Heath History
- ^ Lewis Cass and the Politics of Disease: The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832
- ^ Smallpox History - Other histories of smallpox in South Asia
- ^ Conquest and Disease or Colonialism and Health?, Gresham College | Lectures and Events
- ^ WHO Media centre (2001). Fact sheet N°259: African trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs259/en/index.html.
- ^ The Origins of African Population Growth, by John Iliffe, The Journal of African HistoryVol. 30, No. 1 (1989), pp. 165-169
- ^ World Population Clock - Worldometers
- ^ [1]
- ^ Ann F. Ramenofsky, Vectors of Death: The Archaeology of European Contact (Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 1987):
- ^ Robert L. O'Connell, Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression (NY and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989)
- ^ Diamond, Jared (1997). Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-03891-2.
- ^ Dixon, Never Come to Peace, 152–55; McConnell, A Country Between, 195–96; Dowd, War under Heaven, 190. For historians who believe the attempt at infection was successful, see Nester, Haughty Conquerors", 112; Jennings, Empire of Fortune, 447–48.
- ^ Ming Dynasty. MSN.com. Archived 2009-10-31.
- ^ China's Population: Readings and Maps. Columbia University, East Asian Curriculum Project
- ^ The Impact of the Potato. History Magazine
- ^ Antiquity of maize in India. Rajendra Agricultural University
- ^ Super-Sized Cassava Plants May Help Fight Hunger In Africa. The Ohio State University
- ^ Maize Streak Virus-Resistant Transgenic Maize: an African solution to an African Problem. Scitizen. August 7, 2007
- ^ http://www.springerlink.com/index/t514426365436ur2.pdf
- ^ Savoring Africa in the New World by Robert L. Hall Millersville University
- ^ Historical survey > Slave-owning societies, Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History, Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ Focus on the slave trade, BBC
- ^ The shaping of Black America: forthcoming 400th celebration reminds America that Blacks came before The Mayflower and were among the founders of this country.(BLACK HISTORY)(Jamestown, VA)(Interview)(Excerpt) - Jet | Encyclopedia.com
- ^ a b 1860 Census Results, The Civil War Home Page.
- ^ American Civil War Census Data
- ^ Royal Navy and the Slave Trade
- ^ Sailing against slavery. By Jo Loosemore BBC
- ^ British and foreign state papers, Volume 10 By Great Britain. Foreign and Commonwealth Office
- ^ The West African Squadron and slave trade
- ^ Anti-slavery Operations of the US Navy
[edit] References
- Guy Ankerl, Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western, (2000) ISBN 2881550045
- Arendt, Hannah, The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951) (second chapter on Imperialism examines ties between colonialism and totalitarianism)
- Conrad, Joseph, Heart of Darkness, 1899
- Fanon, Frantz, The Wretched of the Earth, Pref. by Jean-Paul Sartre. Translated by Constance Farrington. London : Penguin Book, 2001
- Gobineau, Arthur de, An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races, 1853–55
- Gutiérrez, Gustavo, A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics, Salvation, 1971
- Kipling, Rudyard, The White Man's Burden, 1899
- Las Casas, Bartolomé de, A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies (1542, published in 1552)
- LeCour Grandmaison, Olivier, Coloniser, Exterminer - Sur la guerre et l'Etat colonial, Fayard, 2005, ISBN 2213623163
- Lindqvist, Sven, Exterminate All The Brutes, 1992, New Press; Reprint edition (June 1997), ISBN 978-1-56584-359-2
- Maria Petringa, Brazza, A Life for Africa (2006), ISBN 978-1-4259-1198-0
- Jürgen Osterhammel, Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview, Princeton, NJ: M. Wiener, 1997.
- Said, Edward, Orientalism, 1978; 25th-anniversary edition 2003 ISBN 978-0-394-74067-6
- Whaites, Alan, "States in Development," DFID, London 2007[2]
[edit] External links
- Liberal opposition to colonialism, imperialism and empire (pdf) - by professor Daniel Klein
- "Colonialism" article by Margaret Kohn in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Globalization (and the metaphysics of control in a free market world) - an online video on globalization, colonialism, and control.
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